The legendary ZX Spectrum computer will take on a new life. History of the ZX Spectrum computer About the software

The most popular home computer in the late USSR was the Sinclair.
He worked in computer labs, cooperatives, game rooms. Many of today's programmers
started with him.

Development

"... All work was carried out in the OKB of the Lviv Polytechnic Institute - a secret, regime enterprise at that time, now (1999) is called NIKI ELVIT (Scientific Research Design Institute of Electronic Computing Measuring Technique) of the State University" Lviv Polytechnic "

Eduard Andreevich Marchenko can be considered the initiator of the transformation of the branded Spectrum into the domestic one. He was the designer of a computer case and for the first time connected the Spectrum to a TV through the antenna input. However, he is not so proud of his accomplishments.

According to Marchenko, if he knew that RU5 memory chips, taken away by homemade spektrumists (and on such a scale that it became impossible to fulfill some government orders), would start to disappear from all Union enterprises, he would have thought carefully before promoting the popularity of Spectrum. Yuri Dmitrievich Dobush was the first to fully reproduce the Spectrum: he studied and disassembled into parts available in the USSR the proprietary and highly secret ULA microcircuit, which actually contained the entire computer, not counting the memory, processor and a pair of multiplexers. Evgeny Evgenievich also took part in the development. Natopta, who was engaged in the software part of the computer, and Oleg Vasilievich Starostenko, the creator of the first printed circuit board "Lvov".

"How did the idea to copy the Spectrum come about, and why exactly the Spectrum? The fact is that then there was already a need for a computer of this class in the air, especially, there was a need to develop something with graphics. Then there was no such thing as a home computer Just a computer that would have good graphics. This time. By the way. By the way, I am still amazed and admired to this day how original the screen (screen memory / aut./) was invented in the Spectrum! It was necessary that it was a computer with a sufficient number of software means, in particular, games, and to make them available. These are two. What was the third?

Probably the fact that IBM "coy then began to be dealt with in Kiev. And it was very cumbersome and expensive. Therefore, the question arose of how to make something compact, convenient, cheap, and at the same time reliable. Then there were no normal drives. The only thing that appeared , - a CM 1800 machine with 8-inch drives, they constantly had to be clicked, and it was such a bandura ... The use of a tape recorder in the system was quite convenient. The Spectrum was not created as a home computer or as a computer for games. design system for the development and debugging of programs on the 580th processor.

There was such a Zhenya, somewhere he had contacts. Some of the foreign students brought the signature Spectrum here to the OKB. This Zhenya contacted Evgeny Evgenievich Natopta, who, upon seeing this computer, asked Zhenya to take it home to play with ... We take the 99th oscilloscope from work, drag it there and literally go through all the legs, sketching the oscillograms of this ULA. In addition, we had information on the structure of the software: literally one sheet was written in. We also read the information from the ROM of the computer. And we began to work. Evgeny Evgenievich Natopta was engaged in software, and I, a young specialist back then, specifically in hardware. I reconstructed the circuit using oscillograms.

It wasn't long. Month maximum .... But we worked! We worked like this: in the morning you come at nine, and until eleven, until the guard kicked out, both on Saturday and Sunday. That was work! By the way, we then had an interesting approach to the synthesis of the circuit: we did not draw the circuit - we soldered it. And the whole scheme was always in my head. Already, as she earned, you never came back to her, the main thing is to work. It was hard to do this routine - to draw a diagram. Sinclair is also interesting in that it was very compact and powerful enough for those times.

We watched it on such a small TV (it shows the size of the TV - a little more than a palm), which was on the computer, the computer - it was a board with soldered wires.

Later, it was possible to refine it in different ways, but we repeated the oscillogram one to one - we were afraid that the program might not work. We had specific inserts in RAS "s and CAS" s. There was a whole system of tricks that made it possible to do everything optimally. And we tried as much as possible to keep everything as it was in the original. Later, people began to think: there is a scheme and they tried to do it differently. In addition, we used the element base that we had in stock. For example, only six months later eight-digit registers IR22, IR23 appeared on sale. Then they were not there yet. Therefore, there are so many IR16. And what is characteristic, I tried to make a computer with the same consumption as the original. And it succeeded!

I remember, there was a 176 series, for some fragments of the circuit the task was not only to implement, but also to optimize. Some were with such twists! I remember making a counter on 176IR2, it was so twisted there that I sometimes wonder how it came to my mind to do everything like that. ... Only Kaunas was walking with us. But Kaunas was late with the development, although their first version started working earlier. Natopta contacted them and some sketches were from them, they also had their own developments. It was a parallel work, but they failed to synthesize the whole circuit. We gave them our circuitry and then they were able to finish the job. They had elaborations, somewhere they pulled out some pieces of the structure of programs, where what memory is located. I remember the memory cards were brought from Kaunas. This gave us the ability to work faster. And then we brought them our circuitry. Then came the Leningrad, Novosibirsk ...

(Programs) Copied directly from tape recorder to tape recorder. Then there were copying programs, two years later someone started writing these programs. I personally did not do this anymore. We then raised the question of how to make an apparatus for copying. But there was already a question of tape speed. The first copy is normal, then the second, the third: it gets worse and worse. We indulged in this for literally six months and forgot in general how it always happens. In addition, there were problems at work - we were not praised for this, to put it mildly. Not our bosses directly, but the authorities. No, in general it was impossible to do something then. The main thing is that we were a regime organization. Therefore, perhaps, they have not heard anything about us.

There were very few programs. I remember that they could still be collected - two, three, four ... I remember having about fifty cassettes in two years. By the way, just like on IBM "ke once collected all the programs that were there - everything fit in one box, five-inch, 360 kilobytes. Interestingly, when they created this layout, there were immediately enthusiasts, such as Starostenko Oleg Vasilyevich, who worked in the same group. He undertook to embody all this in "metal" - printed circuit boards, etc., etc. Firstly, his task was to reproduce a schematic diagram using these wires hanging and sticking out of the breadboard, to separate the board, etc. etc. He worked on this for six months.

When Oleg Vasilievich had already made a printed circuit board, the first computer appeared with its appearance. It was 84-85. And he also brought this first version to Moscow to his customers. He had friends in Moscow and Leningrad, it is likely that he dragged her there. It is important that there was already a working computer, and this instilled confidence that everything would work out. But when the first microcircuits were installed, they did not pass according to their technical characteristics. It was also a kind of risk.

They said that domestic RU5s should not have worked there at all. They never worked that way. Well RU6-e then started to work, and RU5-e I don't remember that they worked. Well, it seems to work, but it doesn't work. Is failing. For the same reason, the CM1800s constantly failed, constantly broke. Nothing normal could be done on our microcircuits, especially memory. It was a disaster. I still remember that we put such thick power rails and hung capacitors from above - this is horror. I still have such boards somewhere. What is characteristic of our "memory" that there are capacitors inside, and during regeneration, during the fronts, due to their recharge, it consumed very much, and there were such "ringing" ... Whatever we did: multilayer, and as soon as they put the decoupling, even the firms then recommended how to breed the matrix, how to start up the conductors. The worst thing is that our capacitors had a high inductance of the outputs and they were not suitable for filtering. We encountered this already at IBM "ke ..."

real branded Sinclair http://demin.ws/blog/russian/2012/09/01/sinclair-zx-spectrum/

Production:
Source: how it was in Leningrad: http://habrahabr.ru/post/118474/
For the first time, a spontaneous market began to form near the store "Young Technician", which is at 55 Krasnoputilovskaya in the 80s of the last century. The reason was that during the time of total deficit, there were only a few shops selling radio components in all of St. Petersburg, and they did not shine with their assortment. Therefore, on weekends, people gathered at the entrance to the store and tried to buy or sell something. And all this was done from the underground, tk. the activity was considered illegal, and the police often chased this “crowd” of 30-40 people. Therefore, someone stood, say, with instructions from a tape recorder in his hands, someone kept a list of available transistors pinned to the lining of his jacket. In general, everything is like in the film "Ivan Vasilyevich changes his profession."

In Tashkent, for example, these were radio ranks on Tezikovka (flea market). Parts, boards, operating instructions, Tseshki, sets of parts, etc. were laid out on a spread newspaper. The bazaar collected 50 kopecks per seat.

The boards were industrial-made, and various keyboard buttons and stickers were sold separately. For the manufacture of the case, they used whoever could, for example, plastic boxes for photographic film or jewelry.

Sometimes in "Yuno Tekhnika" they bought a kit for assembling an amplifier, used its case and a transformer. The joystick was made from a tonearm, 5 microswitches and a rubber grip for a motorcycle handlebar.

Sinclair was connected via a toggle switch directly to the video input of the TV's picture tube.

BK is a family of Soviet 16-bit home and educational computers. It has been in serial production since January 1985. In 1990, the retail price for BK 0010-01 in the Elektronika chain of stores was 650 rubles

This is Tseshka - an indispensable measuring device for any radio amateur. The standard wire is replaced with a fluoroplastic

Source: http://abzads.livejournal.com/32469.html
"25 years ago, the sight of this device aroused the admiration of experts:

ZX Spectrum, colloquially "Sinclair". This particular - "Zonov" version, it was developed by a certain Zonov. This was the most common option in Leningrad. The button on the left is Reset. Connectors for connecting to a monitor and a power supply. This device is not for sale, it is a car for a tuner. All microcircuits are installed in connectors, colloquially referred to as "beds"

Note the row of large "beds" with gold-plated contacts. Such connectors made it possible to quickly insert and remove a set of microcircuits, in this case, RAM. I also made money by checking microcircuits when I was in the market. It is an extended version of Sinclair with 128KB of RAM. Not funny, even 48 KB of the simple version allowed both playing and programming in BASIC. Sinclair had a resident OS with a built-in Basic, and language operators typed with one click of the appropriate button.
In order for the extended device to work, it was necessary to add something to the standard wiring and do the wiring:

I was proud of that. Installation pitch, the distance between two adjacent microcircuit legs, 2.5 mm. That is, between the wires that connect the legs of the RAM (at the bottom of the board) - 1.25 millimeters, excluding the thickness of the wires. PTFE insulated wires. To solder, you need to remove a piece of insulation no more than half a millimeter long. This was done on the flame of a match or a lighter, the fluoroplastic did not melt, but evaporated. The solder flowed a little under the insulation, it turned out quite tightly, withstood operation on the street, in the Juno market. In the first picture, at the top left, you can see two large "beds", one in the other. This is to test the sound coprocessor, there were two options. This coprocessor produced pretty decent stereo sound, and all these wonders needed a power supply, monitor and keyboard to tune. I tried different options and ended up settling on these:

Monochrome monitor, reed switch keyboard. I played it. All this I wore on Saturday and Sunday to the market to sell what I had done in a week. Imagine, it worked in cold weather. You could connect a floppy drive to this computer:

As you can see, this is a mobile device. The box contains the controller board. After checking the chipset on this board, I soldered it into the device for sale. The drive is five-inch. A floppy disk contained a dozen or more (?) Toys.
Installation was carried out using liquid acid fluxes; after soldering, it was necessary to wash the board. Later, they began to use solder with a flux placed inside the wire. And most often, after installation, the computer did not work. There were "sticks" of solder between the tracks. There have been bad prints, with the same sticky or cracked tracks. There were microcircuits that did not work well. Sometimes it was necessary to shift the momentum. To see the operation of the device, impulses, you need an oscilloscope. Starting with a huge box with a round window, I ended up choosing this one:

And the next device still works. Sometimes on the farm you need to solder some little thing:

The wire on the spool is solder. Rosin is poured inside the wire.
You don't look that the soldering iron is so ugly. I've tried a lot of them. The copper tip quickly dissolved in the solder, lost its flat cut, and a depression formed. The tips were purchased in bundles. As you can see, there is no regulator and thermostabilizer. The soldering was carried out in a barbaric way, with an overheated sting to speed up the process. On a normally tinned board, it took half a second to solder one pin of the microcircuit. Then it moved to the next output, etc. I put a disco-style record on the turntable and soldered to its rhythm.
The most common option was a small case, in which the board was placed under a flat membrane keyboard, with an external power supply. By order, we made computers in large cases with disk drives:

In the foreground is one of Sinclair's variants. The Soviet analogue of the Z80 and one large microcircuit that ensures all the operation of the computer. Even computers were made with two floppy drives:

The power supply is visible on the back, on the left is a computer with a floppy drive controller.
Some users contrived to conduct accounting on the Spectrum, edit texts (it was possible to connect a printer that printed not only text, but also graphics). But the vast majority bought it for toys.
Memories of this period of my life are contradictory. On the one hand, this is all a pretty skillful craft. On the other hand, handicraft, no progress, regression in the organization of production.

Over time, some manufacturers switched to trading computer junk. Very few have continued to manufacture various devices. And most of them were engaged in a wide variety of business, not related to computers.

For a while I worked alone. I did it myself, I sold it myself. The profit was great at first. But once I felt that it was impossible to continue this way: computers were getting cheaper, but you need to feed. I managed to save money, bought parts, hired workers. The workers were the same neighbors in the RFF dormitory, acquaintances. And I became a bourgeois. At first, I saw it as a new task: to distribute finances in such a way as to release the largest possible number of products. Over time, the bill went to dozens of pieces per week.
update:
From 1990 to 1994 prices have changed significantly;) Just do not remember.
In 1988, when I returned from military service, a set of parts cost 600-800 rubles. More precisely, I forgot, I remember the figure 800, but now it seems too big, because the average salary was then under 200, although perestroika had already yielded rotten fruits. There was a black and white TV in every dorm room they wanted to have. A used one cost 50 rubles. Similarly with a tape recorder, so we are talking about a set of parts without a monitor and driver;) My father refused to subsidize such stupidity, so I collected money for the first computer two years later through petty speculation. Then many students were engaged in this rotten business. Soon he began to earn money exclusively by computers and refused the help of his parents.

Around 90, the price was formed, the processor cost about a dollar, the work process was in full swing, and a profitable business appeared for nimble cooperators: they took out a loan in rubles, converted it into dollars at the state exchange rate, bought processors for dollars, sold them here for rubles at the black market rate and returned the ruble loan. For such a profit, as you know, capital will not stop at any crime, not to mention banal speculation and bribing the right person.

A set of two 64Kb ROMs also cost about a dollar, as far as I remember. Then ROMs of 128Kb appeared, this was enough for one. In 1992, when I hired soldering workers, the job cost about the same as a processor.

The worker had a nightmare to deploy the processor. I remember how one girl got scared that she unfolded, and with fright tried to blow it off, but only screwed it up. It took me a few minutes to solder the processor by means of a tool called "suction", and then few people could determine by barely noticeable traces that the processor was being deployed. In general, sometimes during the setup, I had to unsolder the microcircuits, the performance of which I was not sure about. One day a worker moved all the memory, there were holes for capacitors. And, of course, not only processors were deployed.

At first, they assembled a computer on cribs on such a test board, and if the set of microcircuits worked, they were soldered. Later, more efficient batches went, and only the memory and processor were checked. After a while, the percentage of rejects decreased so much that it was easier to solder everything at once and replace the faulty ones during setup. Although once I completely quarreled with one supplier, when almost half of the purchased memory turned out to be dead.

In general, it was a very eventful life.

As far as I remember, in a couple of years my shop has produced several thousand Sinclairs. I experienced this heady feeling: money comes by itself. But I knew that they did not appear on their own. I felt some discomfort in front of my workers and no superiority over them. Although there were some urges to say to myself, they say, they could weld themselves, I am not to blame. Once there was an unpleasant moment, I was surprised to learn that old acquaintances dislike me. Later I talked with some bourgeois. This seems to be common: from above, social stratification is less noticeable than from below. The bourgeois believes that he normally communicates with the subordinates, humanly, and is unaware of their hatred. "

3.5 MHz

About computer

ZX Spectrum, Spectrum, Speccy, Spec - this is the name of a large group of compatible computers. There were only 7 official Spectrum models, with only 3 unique models (48, 128, +3). But more than a hundred different Spectrum-compatible computers have been released in the world.

A brief history of the official Spectrum

The first and official model of this computer, the ZX Spectrum 16K or ZX Spectrum 48K, was developed by Sinclair Research in 1982. The director of the company set before the developers only two goals - the computer should cost $ 100 and be able to display a color image (color games). The computer was weaker than other computers on the market and had an unreliable and uncomfortable keyboard, but the low price was the main factor in the success of this computer. In a short time, many programs and extensions were developed for the computer.

In 1984, the second official model ZX Spectrum + was released, which differed from the previous modules only in a more comfortable keyboard and a stylish case. Sinclair Research wanted to sell computers to schools, and by law such computers must have a normal keyboard.

In 1985, the third official model ZX Spectrum 128K was released. This computer was designed on its own initiative by the Spanish partner Investrónica. The Spanish government introduced a tax on foreign computers with 64Kb or less memory. In addition to increasing the memory from 48 KB to 128 KB, Investrónica has significantly redesigned the computer. AY-3-8912 sound chip, additional improved BASIC, MIDI port, RS-232 port were added to the computer. In Spain, sales of this computer began immediately in 1985, and in Britain, for economic reasons, a year later.

In 1986, Sinclair Research was on the verge of bankruptcy and sold the computer rights to rival Amstrad.

Also in 1986, Amstrad released the next model, the ZX Spectrum +2. It was a ZX Spectrum 128K with a built-in tape recorder. They used the case and tape recorder of the Amstrad CPC computer, slightly modifying it.

In 1987, Amstrad released the ZX Spectrum +3. It was a ZX Spectrum 128K with a built-in floppy drive and an operating system + 3DOS. They used an Amstrad CPC computer chassis and unique 3 "drive. This drive did not support standard 3.5" floppy disks.

Also, to reduce the cost of production, the ZX Spectrum + 2A and ZX Spectrum + 2B models were released, slightly different from the ZX Spectrum +2.

This is where the story of the official ZX Spectrum computers ends.

Almost the entire circuitry of the original ZX Spectrum 48K was hidden in the ULA ASIC and is still unknown. In 1987, the first attempts to decipher and repeat the ULA functions and the creation of the domestic Spectrum began.

The shortage of Z80-compatible processors was also a problem. They were not produced in the Soviet Union.

In 1988, the first Soviet ZX-compatible computers were released: the Moscow 48, which has good compatibility with the original, and the simpler, but less compatible, Baltika computer.

Computer was released in 1989

The development of the computer market in the 70s was in its early stages. The industry was still far from making this product mass-produced. Therefore, for the most part, computers were complex devices designed to perform any large-scale tasks. But by the end of the decade, people were wondering, "Why not use these machines as a tool for entertainment?" Their voices were heard, and some manufacturers began to release special kits for self-assembly of the gaming system. However, the disadvantages of this approach significantly outweighed its few advantages. Firstly, such kits were very difficult to find on sale. Secondly, even if they succeeded, their cost was beyond reasonable. For the money that was asked for the set, it was quite possible to buy a good used car. And thirdly, there was frankly little software for such sets. Why would a user spend a few thousand dollars on a computer that doesn't have a single cool application? In short, a different approach was needed to develop the idea of \u200b\u200bcreating a device for recreation and entertainment. One of them was offered by the British company Sinclair Research, headed by Clive Sinclair.

Clive Sinclair

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe company was to create the most simple and affordable computer that would combine ease of learning and programming and, of course, a low price. This should have solved the main problem of the aforementioned PC building kits - the lack of a software base. The ease of use would allow users to write numerous applications themselves. This is exactly the way Sinclair Research went when developing its ZX Spectrum computer. However, before we start telling about the legend, we will pay a little attention to the history of Sinclair Research itself.

Sinclair Research History

Clive Sinclair formed a company called Sinclair Radionics in 1961. At first, he did not have partners - he developed his business alone. Clive was in the business of selling radio parts by mail (Sinclair Radionics even produced several successful radio designers). In doing so, Sinclair tried to launch several innovative devices. For example, in 1970 an unusual design turntable was introduced. Instead of the traditional circular plate support, it used a triangular structure with weights mounted on the tops. Sinclair said this reduced vibration transmitted from the turntable to the turntable and also kept the vinyl from getting dirty. Nevertheless, almost no one showed interest in the development, and the device never made it to store shelves. More precisely, to the post office counter of Sinclair himself.

The Neoteric 60 Hi-Fi amplifier repeated the unfortunate fate of the unusual player. At that time, the competition in this segment was extremely high, and Sinclair was trying to conquer the market with unusual products, which was Neoteric 60. However, the company was again unlucky - Hi-Fi -the amplifier was selling very badly.

Amplifier Neoteric 60

One might get the impression that the company's first decade was marked by extremely failed projects. However, the financial statements suggest otherwise: by 1971, the firm's annual turnover was £ 560,000 with a net profit of £ 90,000. At the same time, the company's staff was replenished with 50 new employees. Things were going uphill.

The 1970s can be safely called the "calculator era" of Sinclair. At this time, the company released two models of pocket calculators. One of them became the first commercially successful product. This could not even be prevented by a large number of disadvantages of the device, including their unreliability. The second model was intended for a more serious market, but it did not gain a foothold in it. Initially, it was created simply as a device with an extended set of functions, but Sinclair made an attempt to turn the gadget into an office computer, and this attempt failed miserably.

Sinclair calculator

ZX80 computer

In the second half of the 70s, Sinclair Research began developing an inexpensive home computer. Engineer Jim Westwood was responsible for the project. In 1980, the process of creating the device was completed. The ZX80 appeared. It was the first computer in the world to cost less than hundreds of pounds. You could also find the ZX80 on sale as a DIY kit. This version also cost £ 79.95.

The developers managed to achieve such a low price by simplifying the element base and using rather primitive components. The popular at that time Zilog Z80 with a frequency of 3.25 MHz was used as a central processor. To be more precise, a clone of this "stone" produced by NEC. The crystal had several advantages. It not only had a low cost, but (due to its internal architecture) required fewer logic chips. The amount of RAM was only 1 KB, but this was enough to run the programs necessary for the user. Plus, it was possible to install an additional 16 KB of RAM in the form of expansion cards. The ROM volume was 4 KB, and the Sinclair BASIC programming language was already sewn into it. And to store the written programs, ordinary tape recorders and audiocassettes were used.

This is what the ZX80 looked like

Interestingly, the ZX80 did not have a video controller. The image was formed with minimal participation of iron - the operation was performed, first of all, due to the software part. The main and very significant drawback of this approach was that the ZX80 was able to display a picture only when it was not busy executing the program. Before displaying new graphics, the screen simply went blank. By the way, the ZX80 specifications did not provide for the use of any special monitor, an ordinary TV acted as a screen, which was also a plus for ordinary users.

As for the "exterior" of the ZX80, the computer looked more like a game console than a computer. It was a small white plastic box with a membrane keyboard located on it, on which there were no symbols, only commands. The user simply pressed the register button and selected the appropriate BASIC command. This greatly simplified the process of writing programs.

Despite its shortcomings, the ZX80 has become extremely successful. Of course, the cost of the gadget played a major role in this. Already in the first months after the release, there was a queue for the purchase of the ZX80 and there was a shortage of devices, which Sinclair Research did not expect.

Computer ZX81

In 1981, the next generation of the computer was introduced called the ZX81. The cost was cut even further, with a DIY kit now available for a ludicrous £ 49.95. The finished computer was somewhat more expensive at £ 69.99, which was still cheaper than the equivalent ZX80. By the way, the ZX81 was the first Sinclair device that was sold not only by mail, but also through retail chains. As for the technical characteristics, the "heart" of the computer was the same Z80 processor manufactured by NEC with a frequency of 3.25 MHz. The amount of RAM remained the same (1 KB), which caused particular displeasure among users. Such a modest number of "brains" severely limited the possibilities when creating new applications. Expansion cards that increased the RAM capacity to 16KB could solve the problem, but the cost of some of them was comparable to the price of the ZX81 itself. The ROM volume has grown to 8 KB, and the built-in Sinclair BASIC language has acquired support for floating point arithmetic.

ZX81 received a black body

Interestingly, the ZX81 did not receive a video controller again. In order to somehow compensate for its absence, Sinclair came up with two modes of operation: slow and fast. In fast mode, the ZX81 performed the same as its predecessor, the ZX80. That is, during the execution of the program, the image disappeared from the screen. In slow mode, the screen did not go out, but it took about 4 times more time to process the program code. Externally, the ZX81 was slightly different from the ZX80. The plastic case of the computer turned black, and the membrane keyboard, which received a slightly different key configuration, remained white for convenience.

As you can imagine, the ZX81 received only minor changes. But even that was enough for the computer to have sold 8 times the sales of the ZX80.

ZX Spectrum

In 1982, the launch of the third generation of the ZX computer was planned. You quickly get used to good things, as they say, so even though the ZX81 offered decent functionality at a more than modest price, users expected new and innovative features from a computer with the tentative name ZX82. The main difference between the next generation computer was to support color images, because the ZX80 and ZX81 worked only with monochrome images. This move was largely influenced by the widespread adoption of color televisions. In this regard, the name ZX82 was changed to the speaking ZX Spectrum.

On the hardware side, the ZX Spectrum has undergone several key changes. The Zilog Z80A still played the role of the central processor, but its frequency was increased to 3.5 MHz. The amount of RAM and ROM increased to 16 KB each, and the amount of RAM could even be 48 KB. Spectrum really learned to work with color images thanks to the advent of the graphics controller. The video mode supported a resolution of 256x192 pixels and 8 colors with two brightness levels. The output of one-bit sound through the built-in speaker was also provided. In fact, it was an ordinary "squeaker" that sounded rhythmically in games. The appearance of the ZX Spectrum was slightly different from the design of the ZX80 and ZX81. The new computer received a different keyboard: the membrane was replaced by full-fledged rubber keys.

The input and download of programs was carried out from a cassette recorder, which was connected to a computer. Some tapes even had some sort of digital security. For example, a game was bundled with a serial number that allowed it to run.

Spectrum has proven to be as successful as its predecessors. Starting prices for computers were still democratic: versions with 16KB and 48KB of RAM were estimated at 125 and 175 pounds sterling, respectively. And a little later they were reduced to 99.95 and 129.95 pounds.

Subsequently, the ZX Spectrum received several updates. In June 1984, the ZX Spectrum + went on sale. It differed from the regular version by the mandatory presence of 48 KB of RAM, as well as a new keyboard, which received an additional reset button. Despite such minor changes, the ZX Spectrum + sold better than the original model. At the same time, some sellers complained about the unreliability of the device, claiming that the percentage of defective computers reached as much as 30%.

ZX Spectrum + computer

ZX Spectrum 128, which appeared in 1986, was developed in conjunction with the Spanish company Investronica. The fact is that the Spanish government imposed a high tax on all imported computers with 64 KB of RAM and below that do not support Spanish. For Sinclair, the entire European market was important, therefore, together with Investronica, the company began to adapt the Spectrum for Spain. The computer received support for 128 Kbytes of "RAM", 32 Kbytes of ROM with an improved BASIC editor, three-channel audio through the AY-3-8910 standard, RGB-out to the monitor and compatibility with MIDI.

In the same 1986, all rights to the Spectrum brand and computers were transferred to Amstrad. The new models received different suffixes: +2, +3, + 2A, + 2B. In terms of hardware, Amstrad computers received only minor modifications. For example, the ZX Spectrum +2 had a built-in Datacoder cassette recorder. And in the ZX Spectrum +3 the tape recorder was replaced by a floppy drive. Plus, this model became the first Spectrum to run the CP / M operating system without additional hardware. She became, perhaps, the most controversial in the entire line. So, the RAM ZX Spectrum +3 was mapped to 64 KB of address space, which led to incompatibility of some games written for the original ZX Spectrum.

Computer ZX Spectrum +2

About accessories for ZX Spectrum

However, not only the low cost contributed to the rise in popularity of the ZX Spectrum. A huge number of different "lotions" were released to the computer, which significantly expanded the functionality of this computer. One of these devices was the ZX Printer, compatible not only with the Spectrum, but also with the ZX80 and ZX81. The device was connected to a computer using a system connector and used spark printing technology. This printing used a special black paper with aluminum coating. The print head consisted of two closely spaced needles that moved across the width of the page. To print characters, tension was created between the needles, and they burned the paper in the right place. A total of 32 characters fit in a line. The very idea of \u200b\u200bprinting at home was truly revolutionary, but it was not possible to fully implement it in the ZX Printer due to the unreliability of the device. Plus, the spark printing technology also showed itself not from the best side: the print quality declined rapidly, and the paper surface was fragile.

Another interesting accessory was a loop-back magnetic tape ROM module called the ZX Microdrive. The volume of such a device was 16 KB. It allowed you to quickly load or save a previously written program. However, the ZX Microdrive has never received proper distribution. Users preferred to use the time-tested, albeit slower, cassette tapes.

ZX Microdrive ROM Module

Cassette for ZX Spectrum

Sinclair also presented expansion cards ZX Interface 1 and ZX Interface 2. Initially, the first was developed as a network interface for organizing a local network in schools. However, before the release of the product, support was added for the simultaneous operation of up to 8 ZX Microdrive devices at once, and in the future the interface was used mainly to connect these ROM modules. As for the ZX Interface 2, this expansion card had connectors for connecting two joysticks (yes, Sinclair even released a game joystick for the ZX Spectrum), a ROM cartridge connector and a ZX Printer connection interface. But due to the high cost, the device did not sell well, and after a year it disappeared from store shelves.

It looked like ZX Interface 1

In addition, many third party accessories could be found on sale. For example, devices such as a speech synthesizer (Currah Microspeech), game joysticks, additional numeric keyboards, and even a graphics tablet and drum kit (Cheetah SpecDrum) were produced specifically for the Spectrum. Impressive!

About the software

But, of course, not for the huge number of different peripherals they fell in love with the ZX Spectrum. The computer was relatively easy to program. In the first half of the 80s, this caused a real boom in the software industry. Both full-fledged companies and single programmers were involved in writing programs. Development of the Western software market for ZX Spectrum can be divided into three stages.

During the first phase, which lasted from 1982 to 1984, the market quantitatively grew. There were no large companies yet, and small offices or single writers were engaged in the creation of applications. At the same time, about 80% of the software was games! The first video entertainment was rather primitive: the "grafon" was not very good, and the plot too. Interestingly, piracy began to flourish already at that time.

The third stage covered the years 1988-1993. This period saw the decline of the ZX Spectrum as a gaming platform. The computer became obsolete and users switched to other systems. Developers have also switched from Spectrum to more modern platforms. Nevertheless, many interesting games were released during these years. For example, over time, a demo version of the legendary Doom was implemented. The performance of the computer was not enough for the fast operation of the shooter, so the “spectral” variation used interlaced scanning, removing every even line of pixels, which increased the speed of rendering scenes.

ZX Spectrum in Russia

The stages listed above do not apply to the post-Soviet space, since many computers (more precisely, their clones) came to the USSR only in the second half of the 80s. And unlike Western Europe, where, along with the ZX Spectrum, other computers (like Atari and Commodore) were selling well, in the country of the Soviets, the Sinclair device was the sole sales leader. Why? The reason, first of all, lies in the low cost of the Spectrum: the computer was not subject to duties, therefore it was available to many Soviet citizens. Computers Atari and Commodore traveled a long way before hitting Soviet stores, and their price was significant. In addition, it turned out that most of the parts of the Spectrum, if necessary, can be replaced by domestic ones, which made the computer maintainable. By and large, the only indispensable component of the system was the Z80 processor.

Domestic clone ZX Spectrum

Lagged behind in its development from the European and software market. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the vast majority of programs were imported from abroad, mainly through Poland. Naturally, there could be no question of any copyright - almost all software was pirated. The percentage of licensed products was extremely small.

At first, the main occupation of programmers was transferring games from cassettes to discs. This operation consisted of hacking the cassette loader, transferring all data from the cassette to disk, and writing the disk loader. But gradually the focus shifted towards writing your own applications. The peak of development of "Spectrum" gamedev in Russia fell on 1995. At this time, the largest number of games was created, while many foreign projects were localized. In subsequent years, there was a decline in the domestic software market for the ZX Spectrum, and as a result, by 2001-2002, only enthusiasts remained among computer users.

Conclusion

The ZX Spectrum is rightfully considered a legendary computer, especially for the entire post-Soviet space. Spectrum left a huge mark on the history of the IT industry, and in Russia it became the first home computer for many. You can even say that the era of the ZX Spectrum brought up the first generation of domestic IT specialists. Unfortunately, at one time Sinclair decided not to release a successor to the Spectrum, focusing on other types of research activities. Nevertheless, the memory of the ZX Spectrum is still alive. To this day, you can find enthusiasts experimenting with this truly iconic computer.

The history of the development of computer games in Russia is inextricably linked with the cult computer ZX Spectrum. Appeared in the USSR at the end of the 80s, it quickly occupied the niche of home PCs that had been empty until that time.
Formally, Spectrum was not the first computer to appear in Russia - similarities of home computers such as “Radio RK-86” appeared even earlier. It was not revolutionary from a technical point of view either - at that moment there were more powerful machines at 41 Kb. However, two factors have played a decisive role in its popularity - affordable price and superior gaming experience.

Clive Sinclair - Computer Lord

The biography of Spectrum's creator is no less interesting than the history of the computer itself.
Clive Sinclair was born on July 30, 1940 near the city of Richmond in the English county of Surrey. The father and grandfather of the future computer genius were engineers, which could not but affect the hobbies of the young offspring. He developed an interest in engineering as a child. Young Sinclair's favorite subject at school was mathematics. While still in school, he invented a computing device capable of working with punched cards, and even invented his own analogue of the binary number system. You can imagine the disappointment of the future inventor when he learned that this “discovery” already had an author - George Boole, who developed the foundations of binary algebra almost a century ago.
At the same time, Sinclair became interested in electronics. Clive repaired radios for friends and acquaintances, made amplifiers and intercoms.
In 1957, Clive completed his secondary education at St George's College, Weybridge. With his knowledge, the path to almost any university was open to him, but his love of self-education and self-confidence led him to the conclusion that he could learn everything himself. He decided to devote all his strength to his own business.
It took money to set up the company, and Clive started looking for work to raise start-up capital. First, he became deputy editor-in-chief at the seedy magazine Prakticheskoe Radio, which was struggling to make ends meet. For almost a year, the 18-year-old Clive worked in the magazine, releasing it alone. He accepted mail, chose the necessary articles, brought them to the room so that there was material for both amateurs and professionals. All the work took him about one day a week, and Clive had a lot of time for his own development.

Already in 1958, Clive found a more profitable job in a publishing house that produces technical literature - where he was engaged in drawing electronic circuits and preparing illustrations. However, money was still scarce. In 1962, Sinclair got a job as a technical editor for the reputable Instrument Practice magazine. This was the time of the active introduction of transistor technology, which replaced lamp devices. Clive got into the jet, and the doors of all manufacturers of radio components were opened for him. In the same job, Clive came across an interesting idea. All parts manufacturers meet the specified parameters for their products. Items that did not fit into them were considered defective and sold for next to nothing. In fact, these were workable parts with non-standard characteristics. Clive started studying them and came to the conclusion that using them, you can get much better results than with ordinary parts, the main thing is to decide where and how to use them. This is how the first Sinclair company was born - Sinclair Radionics.

Using his engineering talent and connections with radio component manufacturers, Sinclair launched miniature amplifiers and receivers that rivaled their “standard” competitors. By 1967, the annual turnover of his company was already more than 100 thousand pounds. In 1972, Sinclair Radionics released the world's smallest executive pocket calculator. It was the leader not only in compactness, but also in price (£ 79). This model has won a huge number of awards and prizes, and its sales volume exceeded 2.5 million copies.
In 75, Sinclair Radionics released a ridiculously cheap multimeter with rich features and a compact electronic watch, in 77 - the world's first pocket TV. And in 1979, Clive created Sinclair Research Ltd. and in less than a year, he shocked the world with the release of the first personal computer for less than £ 100. In parallel with developments in the field of computer technology, Clive managed to engage in other projects - in 1983, he released a pocket flat-screen TV.
One of Sinclair's greatest accomplishments has always been that he was able to make not only the best and smallest pieces in the world, but also make them surprisingly cheap. That is why the demand for his inventions has always been colossal.

8-bit guest from foggy Albion

The first models of computers with the tempting prefix “personal” appeared in the late 70s - the first steps towards the home market were made by Apple and Commodore. However, the “personality” of these devices was only in modest capabilities, and such computers cost a lot - the same Commodore of the 70s model was sold for about $ 700. There were very few people willing to part with such a sum for an obscure device. Various analysts predicted the appearance of cheap personal computers (about $ 150) in the near future, but even the most daring predictions predicted universal computer happiness not earlier than in 5 years.

However, the moment of truth came already in 1980, when the young and little-known British company Sinclair Research Ltd. unveiled a compact PC priced at just £ 99.95. The model was named ZX80 and was built on an 8-bit Z80A processor with a clock speed of 3.5 MHz. The Sinclair ZX80 had 4 KB of RAM and could only work with black and white images. An ordinary cassette recorder was used as an input device, and any TV set was suitable for displaying images. The price in this case turned out to be the decisive factor - the demand for the ZX80 exceeded all expectations, and in a short time Sinclair Research managed to sell 50,000 pieces of these computers. The ZX81, which came a year later, with 16KB of RAM, became even more affordable - its price was only 69.95 pounds. The result was not slow to affect sales - around 300,000 of these machines were sold worldwide.

The third modification - ZX82 - was decided to be released on sale under a more euphonious name: ZX Spectrum. It, unlike its predecessors, had more impressive capabilities: 16-color graphics in a resolution of up to 256x192 pixels, an improved BASIC interpreter and two delivery options - with 16 or 48 KB of RAM.

By the time the ZX Spectrum was released, the Sinclair Research company, headed by Clive Sinclair, was already firmly on its feet, while the release of a new model of the "people's" PC only strengthened its position - a real boom began. Spectrum was sold at a crazy pace in 30 countries around the world (in England alone, about 15,000 cars were bought every week), and companies that created games and other software for this computer began to multiply faster than mushrooms after rain. The computer got a solid army of fans, books and magazines, entirely devoted to it, began to appear.

However, the 84th year, when Sinclair Research released another model of a personal computer, was the beginning of the end for the company. The new Spectrum QL, as conceived by the creators, was not intended for home, but for business use: it was too expensive for the home, but not powerful enough for business tasks. In addition, in this sector, the company had a serious competitor in the face of the computer monster IBM with its booming IBM PC platform. In addition to failing to promote Spectrum QL, Clive Sinclair undermined his financial position with another failed project - an electric car. In short, the company's affairs were shaken, its financial value collapsed from £ 128 million to £ 5 million, which practically pushed Sinclair Research to the brink of bankruptcy. Another breakthrough in the form of the Spectrum 128K model (with 128 Kbytes of RAM) could no longer change the situation. As a result, it was decided to sell the company and all rights to the Spectrum trademark to rival Amstrad.

could make a difference. As a result, it was decided to sell the company and all rights to the Spectrum trademark to rival Amstrad. So in 1986, the Amstrad Spectrum +2 model was released with a tape recorder built into the case and a new chipset, which, according to the idea, was supposed to increase the machine's performance, but in reality this only led to unstable operation and compatibility problems. Two years later, Spectrum +3 appeared, in which the above problems were solved, but the moment was missed.

In fact, the Spectrum platform was doomed from the start - today it is very clear. The fact is that all Spectrum models were tied to the same processor - the Z80, whose capabilities were far from limitless.
But the saddest thing is that the Spectrum architecture, like the architecture of the vast majority of computers of that time, was closed, so only Sinclair Research could improve these computers and release new hardware for them. IBM was the first to understand the fallacy of this strategy: the IBM PC became the first open computer architecture, which gave rise to a huge number of clones of these computers and additional devices to them. Slightly deviating from the topic, I cannot but mention that later IBM repeatedly regretted its decision and even tried several times to “close” the architecture, starting the release of model lines incompatible with the IBM PC. But the gin, once released from the bottle, no longer wanted to come back. Now let's get back to the Spectrum. Ironically, their smooth decline at home in the late 1980s coincided with the heyday of this platform in the USSR. The fact that they have already died down and got sick, we have just begun.

Amazing adventures of "Spectrum" in the USSR

Before we move on to the history of the appearance of the "Spectrum" in the USSR, it should be mentioned that not only at home, but also in almost all countries where the ZX Spectrum was sold, there were two options for its delivery - already assembled and in the form constructor “Do it yourself”. For the 80s, the method of selling radio devices in the form of a set of parts and assembly instructions was extremely popular, not least because of their cheapness. Needless to say, in the USSR the first Spectrum began to arrive in disassembled form? Actually, our compatriots, as time has shown, did not even need a full set of “spare parts” to assemble the Spectrum - just a schematic diagram and, of course, the most important component, the Z80 processor, was enough. Everything else “ours” were made either independently (they made boards from improvised means, made keyboards), or made on the basis of the domestic element base

This approach allowed to reduce the cost of the already inexpensive Spectrum so much that in the vastness of the USSR it became available to almost everyone - the cost of a kit for assembling a ZX Spectrum even before the start of mass production of its domestic clones was equal to one monthly salary of an average Soviet engineer. It was only 1987 in the yard then, “perestroika” was just beginning. Immediately after the adoption of the law on cooperatives and individual labor activity, the evolution of Spectrum in the USSR entered a new stage of development. If earlier computers had to be assembled on their own or to hunt for collected copies on spontaneous radio markets, now numerous cooperators have begun to produce and sell it, who even began to develop their own modifications of the original ZX: “Moscow”, “Baltika”, “Leningrad”, “Pentagon ”,“ The Hobbit ”,“ Quorum ”,“ Kharkov ”,“ Zelenograd ”,“ Robik ”and others.

Nobody has ever counted the exact number of Spectrum produced and sold in the main country of developed socialism, but there is every reason to believe that this figure is no less than half a million copies.
Do not underestimate the scale and speed of spektrumization of the USSR. Suffice it to recall that before the advent of Spectrum, our computer technology was represented only by large computers, access to which only professional programmers had, and by poor monsters of domestic computer building such as BK 0010. The basics of programming could then be learned only in the popular magazines Science and life ”,“ Technique for youth ”,“ Young technician ”- in the sections devoted to the programming of microcalculators. Spectrum's closest import competitor - IBM PC / XT - cost about 10 average Soviet salaries at that time, which instantly transferred it from the category of competitors to the orderly ranks of unfulfilled dreams such as buying a yacht and a country villa. It's funny that at the same time XT-shki also managed to yield to Spectrum in graphic capabilities - the CGA-video adapter worked only in 4 colors.

In parallel with the development of the production of ZX Spectrum, the first gaming clubs began to emerge - the brothers of the Soviet video salons, in which everyone on a small TV screen could join the “masterpieces” of the world film industry - horror films, action films of category “B”, films with the participation of Bruce Lee and other forbidden fruits. A typical computer club of the time was a semi-basement room with five or six Spectrum. Of course, from the range of games then the most popular were arcades, there was no talk of any network entertainment and similar joys then. And yet, until the early 90s, these clubs were going to sell out - in order to play, you had to stand in line.
It is worth noting that there have been attempts to create gaming clubs based on other platforms - most often Commodore or Atari. However, none of the competitors could take root in the USSR.

The virtual life of the Spectrum

But despite the popular love, the fate of the Spectrum in Russia was also a foregone conclusion. Prices for IBM-compatible computers fell day by day, and the capabilities of this platform grew rapidly. In addition, the gaming industry, sensing the smell of profit, began to rapidly master this niche. It cannot be said that all this time Spectrum did not stand still - it acquired support for 5.25-inch floppy drives, "learned" to work with a printer, memory some of its modifications have been expanded to 1 MB! However, all these "upgrades" were nothing more than dying cramps. In 1992, the migration of Russian users to the IBM PC began.
However, some “spektrumistov” love for this computer reached such a stage that people continued to use and develop it. New programs, games continued to emerge, Spectrum was “trained” to support hard drives, CD drives, and network capabilities. Thanks to the latter, a similar FIDO network ZXNet was created. Passion for "Spectrum" has grown from a rational hobby into a cult. By the way, Spectrum fans are alive and well even nowadays - now they are a stone's throw from the Spectrum launch on the Internet - the ICQ client and browser are almost ready.

Simultaneously with the massive transition to the PC platform, the first Spectrum emulators for PCs began to appear - first for MS-DOS, and then for all versions of Windows. Most of these emulators, as well as tens of thousands of games, can be downloaded from the Internet. However, let's be frank - games for Spectrum are now no longer capable of causing that storm of joy as before. The author of these lines, in his own skin, was convinced several times that it is better to leave bright childhood memories intact, otherwise disappointment cannot be avoided: the first time my bright images of the past were covered with a copper basin when trying to reread Dunno on the Moon in adulthood, the second time - when I summoned the spirit of Spectrum with the help of an emulator - 16-color graphics and modest resolution after 20 years are perceived “a little” differently.
Spectrum and its rich gaming legacy have successfully survived to this day. And it is quite likely that this legendary computer will successfully live in the form of emulators for another couple of decades - this time on PDAs and mobile phones. It's no secret that now there is a renaissance of old arcades on all kinds of mobile platforms. Popular games of the past are successfully ported to mobile phones and PDAs, and Spectrum does not stand aside - an emulator for Palm OS has recently appeared. The emergence of emulators for other mobile devices is a matter of time!

For many computer enthusiasts in the post-Soviet space, the ZX Spectrum became the first home computer. And for some, even a starting point in programming. In this article, we once again recall the legendary development of the British company Sinclair.

Sinclair Research History

ZX80 computer

As you can imagine, the ZX81 received only minor changes. But even that was enough for the computer to have sold 8 times the sales of the ZX80.
ZX Spectrum

About accessories for ZX Spectrum